The Papacy, explained

What’s this “Pope” business? What’s that about?

Who is this Pope person?

The Pope is the Bishop of Rome and the leader of the Holy Catholic Church.

He is considered the successor of Saint Peter, the apostle whom Jesus appointed as the head of his followers. Peter was the first bishop of Rome and this is what is crucial about the office. You don’t become the Bishop of Rome because you’re the Pope. You become the Pope because you’re the Bishop of Rome.

The Pope is also the sovereign of Vatican City. He holds spiritual authority over more than a billion Catholics and serves as a symbol of unity and continuity in the Church.

Is the Pope like the CEO of the Catholic Church?

No. The Church is not a corporation, and the Pope is not a CEO. Bishops are not employees. They are successors of the apostles in their own right.

Cardinals don’t function like regional managers either. They advise the Pope and elect his successor, but they have no jurisdiction over dioceses unless given specific roles.

If the Pope came to Palmerston North he couldn’t walk into the bishop’s office and start giving orders about how the diocese is run day to day. The local bishop governs the diocese in his own right, not as a branch manager taking directives from head office.

The Pope’s authority is real, but it operates as a spiritual primacy. It is meant to preserve unity in faith and morals. It confers no powers to micromanage the Church like a head office boss.

Was Peter really the first Pope? What does scholarship and archaeology say?

Yes. While some scholars once questioned whether Peter was in Rome, archaeological work in the 1940s–60s largely settled the debate. Excavations under St Peter’s Basilica revealed a tomb venerated since antiquity as Peter’s, and bones discovered there were identified as those of a robust man from the first century.

In 1968, Pope Paul VI affirmed that they were believed to be Peter’s remains. Taken with ancient writings, modern scholarship now generally affirms Peter’s presence and role as the first Bishop of Rome.

Why is direct lineage important?

This is the principle of apostolic succession: the idea that Church authority has been passed down, person to person, from the apostles to today’s bishops. For Catholics and Orthodox Christians, as well as Anglicans and some Lutherans, this direct link ensures the faith has been preserved faithfully and ensures it is the same church that Jesus founded.

Did Jesus give Peter special authority?

Yes. In Matthew 16:18–19, Jesus tells Peter, “You are Peter, and on this rock I will build my Church… I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven…”

In biblical and Jewish tradition, keys represent governing authority. Jesus also gives Peter the power to “bind and loose”—a rabbinic term for teaching and decision-making.

Catholics see this as the moment Jesus made Peter the earthly head of the Church.

Did Peter exercise this authority in the Bible?

Yes. Peter leads in key moments throughout the New Testament:

• He initiates replacing Judas (Acts 1)

• He delivers the first public Christian sermon (Acts 2)

• He receives the vision that leads to Gentile inclusion (Acts 10)

• He speaks first and decisively at the Council of Jerusalem (Acts 15)

He is consistently shown as the first among the apostles, often acting as their spokesperson.

Acts is considered to have been written by St Luke and this is telling. Luke was closely associated with Paul, who is a rival of sorts to Peter. But in Acts, he gives Peter the central role in the Church’s earliest years. It is telling that Luke does not downplay Paul’s importance.

Paul’s missionary work is the focus of the second half of Acts but he presents Peter as the initial and visible head of the Church, laying the groundwork for Paul’s mission.

Are there other signs of Peter’s primacy in the Bible?

Yes. Peter is always named first in lists of apostles. He speaks for the group on multiple occasions. Jesus singles him out personally (Luke 22:32, John 21:15–17) and entrusts him with unique pastoral responsibility: “Feed my sheep.” Paul also visits Peter first after his conversion (Galatians 1:18), underscoring Peter’s central role.

Did early Christians recognise Peter’s leadership?

Yes. From the earliest centuries, Church fathers referred to Peter as the foremost of the apostles and acknowledged Rome as having a special status because it was “the see of Peter.” Writers like Clement of Rome (late 1st century), Ignatius of Antioch (early 2nd century), and Irenaeus (late 2nd century) all refer to Peter’s primacy and the importance of the Roman Church in preserving the faith.

By the 3rd and 4th centuries, bishops increasingly looked to the Bishop of Rome to resolve disputes and define doctrine, not just as a peer, but as someone with a unique role in maintaining unity.

While the language of “Pope” and “infallibility” hadn’t yet developed, the pattern of Peter’s leadership being exercised through his successors was clearly emerging.

Do non-Catholics see the Pope as having a special role?

Some do. The Orthodox Church rejects papal supremacy but recognises the Pope as “first among equals.” Many Anglicans and some Lutherans acknowledge the Pope’s historic role, even if they disagree with his current powers. Even Protestants who reject the papacy often acknowledge that the Bishop of Rome had a special standing in the early Church.

Not all, of course!

How many popes have there been?

There have been 266 popes from Saint Peter to Pope Francis. The next pope elected will be the 267th.

Have there been bad or corrupt popes?

Yes, though they are the exception. Historians think that a dozen or two popes were seriously corrupt or morally compromised. Notorious examples include Stephen VI, Benedict IX, and Alexander VI.

However, the Church believes that no pope has ever officially taught doctrinal error when exercising the office of pope. It’s like when I tell my kids not to use social media. I might be a hypocrite who spends too much time on my phone, but that doesn’t make the advice wrong.

We distinguish between the man and the message

Wait. Aren’t popes supposed to be perfect?

No. Popes are human and capable of sin, error, and bad judgment. The Church only teaches that they are protected from error when they solemnly define a doctrine on faith or morals for the whole Church.

This is known as papal infallibility, and it applies only in very limited circumstances.

Wasn’t papal infallibility invented in the 19th century?

No. The doctrine of papal infallibility was defined in 1870 at the First Vatican Council, but it was not invented then. Catholic theology distinguishes between a doctrine being defined and one being created. What happened in 1870 was that a pre-existing idea was formally clarified and expressed in precise terms.

The idea that the Pope has a unique role in preserving the truth of the faith goes back to the early Church and has been consistently believed in substance. The 1870 definition responded to rising modern challenges, like the spread of nationalism, secularism, and theological challenge, by formally stating how and when the pope’s teaching on faith and morals is protected from error.

The Council didn’t give the Pope new powers. It clarified a belief already present in the Church’s tradition and grounded in Peter’s role as described in Scripture and affirmed by the Church Fathers. It’s the difference between naming something carefully and making something up.

Does papal infallibility mean popes never make mistakes?

No. It does not apply to personal opinions, political decisions, or even most teaching. It only applies when a pope formally defines a doctrine to be held by the universal Church, under strict conditions.

It is exceedingly rare.

Only two such cases are generally recognised: the dogmas of the Immaculate Conception (1854) and the Assumption of Mary (1950).

That all sounds complicated. Would Peter have made all these distinctions?

No, Peter didn’t use terms like “ex cathedra” or “infallibility,” but he did exercise clear leadership. It does not follow that the principles were alien to him or how he led.

Over time, the Church developed technical language to explain how and when that authority operates, especially to protect doctrine and avoid confusion. It is unfortunate how these terms sometimes translate into the English language. Jargon terms often obscure what they’re meant to clarify.

Has the papacy evolved over time?

Yes. The role of the pope has grown and changed throughout history. Popes have not always had a role in naming bishops for local areas, for example. Sometimes they have exercised significant political power.

By the 19th century, the pope had lost political territory but gained spiritual authority through Vatican I’s definition of infallibility.

Today, the pope is a global spiritual leader, often speaking on moral issues and representing the Church worldwide.

But has the core of the office remained the same?

Yes. Through all its historical changes, the pope has remained the successor of Peter, the Bishop of Rome, and the visible source of unity in the Catholic Church. That core role—of teaching, preserving, and unifying the Church—has been constant.

When will the next pope be elected?

Following Pope Francis’s death on April 21, 2025, the cardinals will meet in conclave between May 6 and May 11, 2025, to elect his successor. Voting will continue until a candidate receives a two-thirds majority.

Who are the cardinals?

Cardinals once were the senior priests and deacons of the city’s parishes who assisted the pope in governing his diocese. Because the role was tied to the Roman clergy, most cardinals (and popes) were historically Italian. Today, the pope appoints cardinals from around the world to reflect the global nature of the Church, though each still holds a symbolic link to a Roman church.

Could a new pope change Church teaching on sexuality or ordaining women?

No. The pope cannot change doctrines the Church considers divinely revealed. For example, in 1994 Pope John Paul II set out definitively that the Church has no authority to ordain women. This teaching is considered not open to change. Similarly, Catholic sexual ethics are based on Scripture, natural law, and longstanding tradition.

A pope can adjust tone, but not reverse doctrine.He can change how the Church talks, but he can’t change what it teaches.